Programming - Graphical User Interface Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Programming - Graphical User Interface - Essay Example The Graphical User Interface (GUI) is the most popular implementation of a Direct Manipulation Interfaces (DMIs) which presents users with a model of their information space and users can manipulate their information by direct action. Since GUI makes use of â€Å"visual objects to implement its model therefore the user can manipulate these objects via a mouse or another pointing device. The User Interface Management Systems (UIMS) are implemented mainly as GUIs so that the interface governs the entire system and not just a single application† (Daniel, Maurice & Thomas, para. 10). The â€Å"Graphical User Interface (GUI)† term came into existence because the first interactive user interfaces to computers were not graphical; they were text-and-keyboard oriented alpha-numeric characters and usually comprised of commands. With earlier interactive user interfaces, the computer had dull appearance and had very brief responses. We had to remember the computer commands too. The typical example of user-computer interface is the user interface of DOS operating system which is still used to from Windows operating system. The GUI utilizes the graphical objects to replace and/or supplement alpha-numeric user interfaces. In this way, graphical user interface enhances the end-user's and/or application programmer's productivity. Well- designed graphical user interface can free the user from learning complex command languages. On the other hand, many users find that they work more effectively with a command-driven interface, especially if they already know the command language (Hoffmann, para.6-8).

Liberty in the United States during the late 19th century Essay

Liberty in the United States during the late 19th century - Essay Example Great philosophical liberal thinkers like John Locke fought for the rule of law, and that individuals had a basic right to life and liberty. Patriotism from a contemporary point of view makes citizens of a nation to neglect their self-worthiness, become irrelevant by their own acceptance and be compliant to governments and their country (Emma Goldman 145). The thesis of this paper therefore is that American patriotism has downplayed the American liberty, abandoning principles and beliefs on which the country had been founded in the 19th century. Patriotism; a great menace to liberty. Several theories and arguments have been advanced by various scholars to unravel patriotism, â€Å"†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.it is more like superstition, one not quite far from inhuman acts and brutal.† Leo Tolstoy defines patriotism â€Å"†¦..as principle that tends to justify the making of a whole nation of murderers.† In justifying these statements, Goldman (1917) argues that patriotism is a created artificial force that is maintained through host of lies; it is a system that tends to rob citizens of their dignity while promoting their level of ignorance. This is a complete opposite of what the revolutionary liberty. (Emma Goldman) Law, Denial to liberty. As a formal court proceeding put it in 1927, â€Å"†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Law performs all that is required when it can do all that it can†¦..†(Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200). This was by then the classical argument advanced in the Supreme Court in Virginia at a determination case when a court order was given for the operation concerning salpingectomy. Giving such a ruling, the court emphasized that it was potentially probable that the offspring would have been afflicted and thus a case detrimental to her own health and that of general society, thus sterilization considered as an option. This is a case of law being applied to determine the lives of individuals, perhaps one would ask if liberty holds the same principles for people. Act intended to

Internation Recruitment and Selection Essay Example for Free

Internation Recruitment and Selection Essay The world has been rapidly transforming due to the changes in technology, innovations, and the reduction of trade barriers into and out of countries which have permitted globalization. Due to globalization human resource management has been forced to take a more international approach, and has demonstrated that a more effective management of human resources internationally is imperative for the success of companies in international business (Shen). Therefore international organizations need to understand the roll that plays the international human resource management (IHRM) department, and the importance of adopting an effective recruiting, selecting, and training strategies that will enable the company to select the right talent for the right places. IHRM plays a very important and challenging roll in the international setting of organizations because â€Å"they must develop practices which will maintain congruence with the overall strategic plan of their respective multinational corporations, while balancing the economic, social, political, and legal constraints of the host countries† (Caligiuri). Companies understand that the only way to develop strong and successful global leaders, which are keys to competitive advantage, is through an IHRM department that has a well develop competitive strategy in place. Multinational Corporations (MNCs) like Unilever and Huawei Technologies Co., a Chinese networking and telecommunications supplier, have understood the importance of a well develop IHRM department and have implemented strategies that are aligned with a global approach that support the business operation worldwide (Gartsdie). Based on Heenan and Perlmutter model there are four competitive strategies as well as different training alternatives for global assignees that MNCs can use to develop a successful IHRM approach. The recruitment and selection (staffing) policies which MNCs implement for their foreign subsidiaries will vary greatly for every company, and should be determine accordingly with the IHRM approach the organization is pursuing (Ball). MNCs can be divided in four types based on their management approach and corporate philosophy. The first approach a MNC may consider is the ethnocentric approach which is â€Å"characterized by low pressures for cost reduction and low pressures for local responsiveness† (Ball). Ethnocentric MNCs are not willing to give up the control over foreign subsidiaries, and prefer to place expatriates employees belonging to the home country of the firm, in all key management positions abroad. IHRMs departments that adopt this approach believe that expatriates are more capable than employees of the host country, and they expect that their expatriate managers transfer headquarters’ culture and philosophy to the host nationals (Caligiuri). This approach is normally used by MNCs with primarily international strategic orientations in the early stages of globalization. The advantage of an ethnocentric approach is that it expands the experience of expatriates and prepares them for high level management positions who execute strategic decisions from headquarters. Many expatriates adapt, learn the language, and perform effectively within the host country (Ball). However data suggest that there is a high turnover rate among expatriates because many of them do not have the special set of skills, characteristics, and abilities (e.g. tolerance of ambiguity, adjust quickly, empathy, actively manage social contacts) that are required to be successful in such position (Caligiuri). Because of the previous statement it is imperative that MNCs understand that facilitating proper training and development to the expatriate is a very important part of the IHRM department because it has a major impact on the effectiveness of the expatriate manager and â€Å"research has shown that cross-cultural training is an effective intervention to prevent expatriate failures† (Deller). However MNCs today face a big problem because studies show that only fifty percent of all expatriates receive adequate training (Deller). Another very important aspect to the IHRM department needs to consider when selecting the right candidate under this approach is to keep in mind the impact in the family of the expatriate. The family’s willingness and ability to adjust is of crucial importance for the assignee’s employer and it needs to be address during the staffing process as well. Another disadvantage for this approach is that is more costly for the corporation because it has to offer more incentives to the expatriate (Deller). In the selection process it is the responsibility of the IHRM department to evaluate the efficiency and cross-cultural proficiency of the candidates to ensure the success of this approach. The polycentric staffing policy is a second approach that can be implemented by IHRM departments of MNCs. Under this approach the human resource department will look for host country nationals (HNC) to manage subsidiaries in their own country with some coordination form headquarters (Ball). With this approach IHRM departments do not need to worry about looking for certain skills or characteristics for an international setting because the candidates are employed at the subsidiary level and they do not have language and culture barriers, labor turnover reduces, productivity increase, there are ideal information of industry, legal and political configuration, and the first cost of employing them is less expensive. Also using this approach makes the subsidiary looks less foreign (Caligiuri). However the problem with hiring HCNs is that they are not familiar with the home country of the international company and with its corporate culture, policies, and practices (Ball). The underlying crisis in communication and control between the headquarters and the subsidiary due to language barriers, conflicting national loyalties and differences in personal values may create an inconsistency in the strategic management process that will result in the subsidiary operating as a separate unit. Home country national’s lack of exposure to international assignments and lack of career mobility among HCNs are also some disadvantages of this approach and ultimately will affect the competitive advantage of the MNC (Padala). According to the article of Jie Shein, â€Å"HCNs are included in management development schemes only at the subsidiary level and HCN managers are rarely promoted to senior management positions† (663). When staffing under this approach IHRM departments can choose from hiring HCNs in the home country or HCNs in the host country. Many MNCs have experienced difficulties in hiring high caliber of HCNs managers because of the lack of long-term IHRM planning and training and ineffective international management development (Shen). When the polycentric staffing approach is not adequate the regiocentric staffing approach might be a better option. The regiocentric staffing approach can be used for companies with a regional strategic approach. In this approach employees are selected for key positions within the region the subsidiary is operating, employing a variety of HCNs and third country nationals, TCNs (Ball). From this perspective the communication and integration systems must be highly sophisticated for headquarters to maintain control over the regions however the host national are given the opportunity to manage their own subsidiaries. The likelihood of HNCs career advancement is greater within the region, but still limited in headquarters (Caligiuri). The training and development for this approach are the same as with the polycentric staffing approach. One of the biggest advantages of this approach is that it serves as a bridge for MNCs to gradually move to a geocentric staffing approach. The geocentric staffing approach is used in companies with a transnational strategic orientation. This staffing approach seeks the best people for key jobs throughout the organization, regardless of nationality, selecting the best person for the job, irrespective of nationality is most consistent with the underlying philosophy of a global corporation (Padala). This approach is ideal because the human resource strategy will be the same across all subsidiaries, using the best practices from wherever they might be found across the MNC worldwide networking of operations (Ball). However one of the drawbacks of this approach is that it can be expensive to implement because of increased training, compensations packages, and relocations costs, and it could require longer lead time (Padala). IHRM staffing approaches are very important but training and development also play a very important role in the international setting. International training and development is one of IHRM’s most crucial activities. While it is true that MNCs recognize the significance of international training and development for their employees there is knowledge that this corporation’s training strategies are weak and not effective. Current researches show that today the majority of companies have ineffective training and management policies that have resulted in frequently employee failure (Shen). In order to succeed in the global arena MNCs need to implement an effective international training and development program for expatriates, HCNs, and TCNs. Globalization has definitely created a very competitive business market in which international human resource management plays a crucial role for the success on multinational corporations. It is imperative that corporation carefully analyze every staffing approach available and implement the one that will help them select the right candidates for the right position, and provide the candidates with the appropriate training and development in order to create a competitive advantage. Works Cited Ball, A. Don, et al. International Business: The Challenge of Global Competition. 13th. New York: McGraw-Hill. Print. Caligiuri, Paula M., Linda K. Stroh. Multinational corporation strategies and international human resources practices: bringing IHRM to the bottom line. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 6:3 September 1995. P.494-498. http://chrs.rutgers.edu/pub_documents/Paula_14.pdf Deller, Juergen. International Human Resource Management And the Formation of Cross-Cultural Competence. Institute of Business Psychology, University of Lueneburg, Germany. International Management Review. Vol.2 No. 3. 2006. http://www.usimr.org/IMR-3-2006/International%20Human%20Resource%20Management%20and%20the%20Formation%20of%20Cross-Cultural%20Competence.pdf Gartside, David, Griccioli, Stefano, and Rustin Richburg. Different stokes: How to manage a global workforce. Issue No.2. 2011. Outlook. Accenture. http://www.accenture.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/PDF/Accenture-Outlook-How-to-Manage-a-Global-Workforce.pdf. Padala, Shanmukha Rao Dr.; Dr. N.V.S. Suryanarayana. Approaches to International Human Resource Management. September 11, 2012. Articlebase.com. http://www.articlesbase.com/international-business-articles/approaches-to-international-human-resource-manageme nt-3249167.html. Shen, Jie. International training and management development: theory and reality. Journal of Management Development. Vol 24 No. 7, 2005. November 2, 2012. http://people.math.sfu.ca/~van/diverse/bellut-papers/test-9.pdf

The Life And Marriage Of Hosea Religion Essay

The Life And Marriage Of Hosea Religion Essay Hosea was a prophet who lived and prophesied just before the destruction of Israel in about 722 BC. During this time, the prophet Hosea was preaching in the Northern Kingdom of Israel. He began his work as a prophet after Amos. This was probably before the end of Jeroboam IIs reign. It is believed that he continued to reign until after the Assyrian had captured Samaria in around 721 BC. It was the troubled times before the fall of Samaria. The writer says that, during this dangerous period, Hosea seemed to ignore threats that the Assyrians had imposed. Instead he was very much concerned on what he sees as root causes of Israelites problems. He further says that Hosea loved the land, he loved his people and he was sure that God loved them too (Drane, 1987:126). It seems as if he was especially concerned about the idolatry of the people and their faithfulness towards God. THE MARRIAGE OF HOSEA If we read Hosea 1:2f, we see how the Lord first spoke to the nation of Israel through the prophet Hosea. God gave Hosea the message that was seen through a personal tragedy in his on life. The message that he received from God was that he should go and get married to a woman called Gomer. He was also told that his wife would be unfaithful. But Matthews argues that, was Hosea a Levite? If he were a Levite, it would mean that he was not going to do the duties or perform in the Northern Kingdom as a priest due to the sins of Jeroboam that would exclude him from the cult. (the sins of Jeroboam were the actions taken by King Jeroboam I to establish a separate identity for the northern kingdom. These sins became the hallmark of an evil king) (2001:182). Nevertheless, Matthew asks a question in his book whether Gomer was a prostitute before Hosea married her. He argues that if Gomer was a prostitute, then the tension between his prophetic role and his priestly background would be heightened, since a Levite would have been forbidden by law to marry a prostitute according to Leviticus 21:14-15. He does not agree that Hosea was a Levite for the metaphor to work. However, the writer argues that Hoseas dysfunctional marriage was serving as a metaphor for Yahwehs bad relationship with Israel (2001:75). Some scholars believed that Hoseas wife Gomer was a temple prostitute that the prophet would marry. This was according to his own understanding of Gods relationship with his people Israel. However, scholars believe that her sexual behaviour was quite unexpected. There after Hosea married Gomer as a wife, the daughter of Diblaim. Hosea bears three children to his wife, however, in chapter 1:3, the Bible states that Hosea went and took Gomer and she conceived and bore him a son. We therefore see that the bible says that she bore him the first son, but the rest of the children are not clear. It seem as if Gomer got the other two children out of prostitution as seen in other scholars like Wellhausen, who argues that when Hosea was marring his wife, he did not realize that the wife was unfaithful till after the birth of the children (Bentzen, 1959:131). These three children were given symbolic names that would convey a message about the ruin of the nation. In 2 Kings 9:15-26, the first-born was called Jezreel. He was given this name as a reminder about the strategic valley where Jehu had defeated the son of Ahab. This simply meant that the King who was there during that time was a descendant of Jehu, who owed his power to Yahweh. And Yahweh could easily get his power. It is believed that this valley was the most fertile place of Israel. Moreover, in Hosea 2: 9, Yahweh says that He will take back all his gifts. This name Jezreel was like a warning that the covenant between God and Israel will be dissolved. In fact the name Jezreel was a prophecy name following the destruction of the dynasty. The second born was given a name called unloved. The second child symbolizes that Yahweh would not have pity and have no mercy after the unfaithful. This was a declaration that the people of Israel seemed to have gone beyond the love and forgiveness of God. In Hosea 1: 6, it clearly shows that Yahweh lost his patience with his people. It was during this time that Hosea was condemning the social injustices of his time. The other was called not my people. The Israelites identity as Yahwehs people was cancelled. Israelites were very proud of themselves as Gods chosen nation. According to Hosea 2:8-9, we see how God had made a promise with the Israelites that He would give them land and children. It was the covenant that God had made with the people of Israel. However, the people of Israel had destroyed the covenant by been unfaithful to Yahweh. For them to have abundant harvest, they started to worship other god called Baal. (Matthews 2001: 75). By so doing, the people of Israel believed that they would become prosperous and have bumper harvest by observing the fertility rites of Baal worship. In addition, these same rituals took part in the very same sexual indulgence that had badly damaged Hoseas marriage life. As Gomer says in Hosea 2:5, the people of Israel would say that, I will go to my lovers they give me food and water, wool and linen, olive oil and wine. This was how the people of Israel who had turned away from God were thinking about their god Baal. They had turned away from God and start worshipping other gods like Baal because of what they could get out of him e.g. things like prostitution and the love of money. Even though things were like that, the prophet Hosea had known that it was Israelites own God Yahweh who all the things as seen in Hosea 2:8. From the above passage mentioned above, we see that during this time, the people of Israel were acknowledging Yahweh only with their lips while their hearts were far from God. A lot of people were practicing syncretism during this period because they worshipped both Yahweh and Baal at the same time. These people involved themselves in different activities that were against God as mentioned above. It was at this particular time that the Israelites had lost their spiritual faiths. WHAT DOES HOSEAS MARRIAGE SYMBOLISE? In this narrative I hold the view that this was historical. The narrative actually reflects Hoseas experience in his life. This was a story that would portray a teaching. This was so because if Hosea had married a prostitute, most people would have condemned Hosea for marrying a prostitute. Moreover, some scholars suggest that Gomer became a prostitute after marriage (Hosea1: 2). However, Pfeiffer states that the first wife that Hosea had married was not a prostitute but she was a foreign woman, Gomer from Diblataim in Moab. He further argued that the woman in chapter 3 was a second wife. This was the one who was a real prostitute. He says that the first marriage shows the failure of Israelites with the national God El eljon in Jerusalem, while the second shows the failure with the tribal God Yahweh. He assumes that the two chapters speak of different women, and says that a second woman was a common streetwalker who was purchased by Hosea at the price of an ordinary slave. The woman was kept privately for a long time as a symbol of Israels impending loss of kings, prince and cultic implements, he said. Pfeiffer mentions that the first two chapters did not mean that Gomer was a prostitute, he explains the word wholedoms as religious apostasy as seen in 12,4 and 6 cf 4,12 and 5,4b. According to him, the wife and children were involved in (religious) fornication because it was believed that the whole land was in such a state. Other scholars suggest that the chapters mentioned above, the Hebrew word prostitute means fornication while Hosea 1:4 means adultery. This would suggest that the prophet did not marry a prostitute. They suggest that Gomer became a prostitute later. Some scholars still would suggest that Gomer was not a commercial prostitute but a Temple prostitute. Therefore she was not immoral character. The story portrays that Hoseas marriage was a symbol of the relationship of Yahweh and his people Israel. This gives us a clear picture as a symbol to the Israelites of their adultery against their husband, God. In Hosea 1:4; 2:1 is about the message of Hosea. We read how Gomer had left her husband and went after men. When Gomer left, Hosea was annoyed with her, but later she was forgiven. Hosea 3: 1f states how Gomer was brought back from slavery and Hosea accepted her as his wife. Here we see how much love Hosea had for his wife and would not let her go. In the same manner, Yahweh has much love for his people, no wonder why it was his wish to bring the people and redeem them. From the message above, it shows that Hosea used his marriage to show the love of God to his people. The bible tells us that God loved the Israelites despite their sins against God. I therefore agree with some scholars who say that Gomer became a prostitute after the marriage. This is so because God would not commend his servant to marry a prostitute woman. Von Rad suggests that if a woman is adulterous, it does not necessarily mean that she is a prostitute. He further says that a woman took part in Canaanite fertility rites. CONCLUSION Hosea is believed to have lived after the fall of Samaria in 721. His main message was probably due to the perplexed period when Jehus dynasty came to an end ca.745. He says though the Israelites were unfaithful to Yahweh, He never rejected them. From the story above Hosea used his marriage to show Gods love to his people. His marriage portrays that it was a symbol of the relationship between Yahweh and his people.

Males, Females, and Science Careers Essay -- Career Issues

Through various appropriate and contemporary literatures, this assignment will discuss a universal issue in science. It will evaluate the contributing factors and consequences of the issue and propose suitable resolutions to overcome it. This issue is the differentiation in males and females pursuing science linked careers. Attention should be drawn to the detail that the majority of existing literature on the issue originates from female sources. This is undoubtedly because it is females that are essentially affected by the issue, thus more interest being directed to addressing the issue by females. Although it cannot be proven, this leaves room for potentially bias statements and for this reason all the sources within the assignment are from published sources and organisational bodies to make attempts for a fair, critical look at the issue. Nationally and internationally, the proportion of females entering science careers, although increasing through the years, remains lesser to their male counterparts (Sikora and Proporek, 2012). It is imperative that an attempt for equilibrium in the numbers of males and females electing science as a career is reached; â€Å"men and women may bring different perspectives and interests to scientific research† (Sikora and Proporek, 2012, p. 235), resulting in a wide range of angles and dedication being placed into all areas of science. Investigations and statistics reveal that this is not currently the case and that males are predominantly interested in the Chemical and Physical elements of science compared to women who take more interest in the Biological sciences (Poulson, 2009; UCAS, 2011). Further reasons for the need to eradicate inequalities include a demand for an increase in female ro... ...e/article/gender-bias-in-teaching/ (Accessed 25: March 2012). Sevo, R. (2008) The case for Title IX compliance in science and engineering [Online]. Available at: http://momox.org/TitleIXCase.pdf (Accessed: 23 March 2012). Sikora, J. and Pokropek, A. (2012) ‘Gender Segregation of Adolescent Science Career Plans in 50 Countries’, Science Education, 96 (2), pp. 234-264. Soard, L. (2012) Textbooks vs Computer Teaching. Available at: http://home-school.lovetoknow.com/Textbooks_Versus_Computer_Teaching (Accessed: 25 April 2012). UCAS (2010) UCAS statistics [Online]. Available at: http://search1.ucas.co.uk/fandf00/index6.html. (Accessed: 20 March 2012). Zittleman, K. (2010) Gender Bias is Alive and Well and is Affecting Our Children [Online]. Available at: http://www.pta.org/Gender_Bias_Is_Alive_and_Well_and_Affecting_Our_Children.pdf (Accessed: 25 March 2012).

Life Styles Inventory (LSI): Self Analysis Essay -- self-assessment di

Introduction The Life Styles Inventory (LSI) is a self-assessment diagnostic instrument that measures 12 key thinking patterns, or "styles". The LSI promotes performance change and improvement by increasing personal understanding of one's thinking and behavior. By responding to these 240 inventory items, individuals learn exactly where they need to focus their development efforts, without ambiguity or guesswork. The results of the self-description are plotted on a circular graph for easy visualization of how the individual thinks and behaves in the 12 LSI styles. This profile acts as a personalized developmental needs assessment, calling attention to the individual's strengths as well as areas needing improvement. Part I: Personal Thinking Styles (primary, backup, limiting) According to my LSI profile shows my primary style is achievement. My backup thinking style is dependent. My backup style was closely followed by avoidance. Refer to attachment â€Å"A† The LSI . My limiting style appears to be is two fold. dependent and avoidance. It illustrates that these two â€Å"limit† my self-actualization and achievement percentages. I do not find myself to be overly defensive or aggressive when dealing with individuals. I tend to listen more to what people have to say. This result was not new to me. avoidance and dependent evidently are the areas that are causing me not to excel. According to the LSI information provided, when your achievement score is greater and the humanistic-encouraging and affiliative scores are less, a concern for task accomplishment will diminish a concern need for others. Evidently this imbalance is reducing my overall effectiveness. When I put this under my microscope, I find that this charact... ...te achiever I need to lead by example, and encourage individuals to give their best effort on every project. Although I am a limited self-starter I must learn to communicate more realistic performance standard/goals and promote teammate input. As I continue to study Leadership and Organizational Behavior, I hope to change my thinking style that is geared to personal effectiveness. Limit my passive / dependent styles and obtain more constructive styles. The Life Styles Inventory from Human Synergistics International was a good wake up call, and offer a way to change your profile. The Challenge of Change section in the LSI will enable me to document a self-improvement plan utilizing my LSI profile. With this, my change suggestions and self-improvement plan will give me a guided direction to properly focus my personal development goals on the way I need to go.

Nobel Prize Assignment

Nobel Prize Founded by Alfred Nobel, the Nobel Prize is awarded to candidates in the fields of physics, chemistry, medicine or physiology, literature, economic sciences, and peace every year since 1901 – except for economic sciences, which was introduced as a Nobel Prize in 1968 by the Sveriges Riksbank. On account of World War I and II, the Nobel Prize was not awarded only on nine occasions since the established year from 1901.Alfred Nobel, a Swedish engineer, chemist, and philanthropist, created a will that would bequeath 94% of his assets into a series of prizes for those who contribute the highest benefit to mankind in the respective fields. Recipients of the Nobel Prize – which can be shared by no more than three people and can also be awarded posthumously in certain cases – receive a medal, sum of money, and diploma for their achievements and are elected by the Nobel Foundation.The Nobel Foundation was created by the executors of Nobel’s will, Rudolf Liljequist and Ragnar Sohlman. The private organization that is the Nobel Foundation is also responsible for administrative details and finances of the prizes. The prizes are presented according to their respective field. The Royal Swedish Academy of the Sciences awards the prizes for chemistry, physics, and economic sciences. The Swedish Academy presents the Nobel Prize in literature. The prize for physiology or medicine is awarded by the National Assembly at Karolinska Institutet.Finally, the award for peace is presented by the Norwegian Nobel Committee and is the only award to be presented in Norway rather than in Sweden. All prizes are awarded based upon several factors but mainly through Nobel’s maxim of delivering the greatest benefit to mankind and is ultimately decided by the Nobel Committees. One hundred and three Nobel Prizes in medicine or physiology have been awarded since 1901 and two-hundred one individuals are known as laureates in the field since the prize ma y be shared by three or more people.Around forty-three awards for the Nobel Prize in medicine and physiology have been presented relating to the field of neuroscience, such as Roger Guillemin in 1977 for his research in the production of peptides in the brain and Roger Wolcott Sperry in 1981 for research into the functions of the right and left hemispheres of the brain. Other rewarded scientists for the Nobel Prize in medicine or physiology include Nikolaas Tinbergen, Konrad Zacharias Lorenz, nd Karl von Frisch for their research into ethology, a scientific enquiry into animal behavior. Scientists whose research affected the understanding of Parkinson’s disease include Arvid Carlsson and Paul Greengard. The two were awarded in the year 2000 mainly for their neurological research into signal transduction in the nervous system. Carlsson and Greengard’s colleague, Kandel, who also shared the prize with them that year, was rewarded for his studies in synaptic function; mor e precisely, a closer look into short term and long term memory.Specifically, Arvid Carlsson and Paul Greengard’s research affected the progression of understanding of Parkinson’s disease by showing how important neurotransmitters such as dopamine work and affect the function of the brain and thus the human body. Carlsson more specifically identified dopamine and Greengard portrayed how neurotransmitters like dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin are able to exert their effects. His research includes a type of signal transmission called the slow synaptic transmission.Carleton Gajdusek’s research in 1976 on the first human prion disease named kuru later on would also help Stanley Prusiner’s studies in 1997 for his work on prions which would shed more light into dementia-related diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease. Although prions are reflective in diseases such as Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease or kuru, Prusiner’s work opens a new underst anding of the pathogenesis of diseases like Alzheimer’s via the suggestions of non-prion proteins mutating to facilitate dangerous deposits in the brain.Swedish scientist and Nobel laureate Arvid Carlsson was able to show the importance of dopamine as a neurotransmitter in the brain. By developing an assay that allowed him to measure dopamine at an extremely sensitive level in the brain tissues, Carlsson found that dopamine is concentrated in other parts of the brain – specifically the basal ganglia, the part of the brain located in the forebrain and connected with the cerebral cortex.Contrary to belief at his time that dopamine is merely a precursor to a neurotransmitter named norepinephrine; Carlsson concluded that dopamine in and of itself is able to act as a neurotransmitter and is greatly vital for the ability to control fine motor movements. Carlsson then led to a series of experiments where he utilized a plant substance named reserpine to discover the importance of dopamine for movement. Carlsson administered reserpine to nimals thus decreasing their levels of dopamine which ultimately caused a loss of movement control. The effect of reserpine on the animals showed symptoms akin to Parkinson’s disease in humans. Carlsson then proceeded to treat the animals with levodopa (L-dopa), a precursor to dopamine, a substance that the brain converts into dopamine and is used in lieu of mere dopamine in order to prevent side effects of dopamine in the blood and since dopamine cannot cross the blood-brain barrier in the first place.Eventually, Carlsson found that the animal’s symptoms disappeared and returned to their previous, normal state since the levels of dopamine in the brain were normalized. Thus, Carlsson’s findings led to more findings that Parkinson’s disease patients have unusually low levels of dopamine represented in the basal ganglia, an area that is very important in the control of muscle movements. There has also been evidence provided by Carlsson of forms of mental illness associated with unsteady levels of dopamine.Carlsson’s findings essentially explain the tremor, rigidity, and decreased motor function associated with Parkinson’s disease since patients with Parkinson’s share the malfunction of certain nerve cells within the basal ganglia that creates dopamine. Conclusively, the animals treated with reserpine and patients with Parkinson’s are low on dopamine levels. Nowadays, the same treatment of levodopa that Carlsson used for treating the symptoms of the reserpine in the animals has been tweaked for human use as a primary pharmaceutical option for patients with Parkinson’s disease in order to alleviate the symptoms.By allowing dopamine levels to be controlled through levodopa therapy, patients are able to experience more stable amounts of dopamine in their system, as opposed to having an irregularly low amount, so that one the ongoing loss of fi ne motor control associated with the onset of Parkinson’s disease may be alleviated for some time. Besides Parkinson’s disease, Carlsson’s Nobel worthy research has also increased the understanding of several other drugs.Carlsson is also notable for his contribution into the discovery and a new generation of drugs, the selective serotonin uptake inhibitors, to treat depression or personality disorders. This new class of drugs is now known as SSRI’s and is considered for many patients dealing with depression. For antipsychotic drugs used to treat schizophrenia, Carlsson showed that the drugs affect the signal transmission of dopamine by blocking the dopamine receptors.Nonetheless, by proving the popular belief of dopamine at his time that dopamine is simply a precursor to another neurotransmitter wrong and showing dopamine’s unknown importance at the time, Arvid Carlsson’s findings essentially lead the development of levodopa and consequently has helped an innumerable amount of patients dealing with the motor symptoms associated with Parkinson’s disease. Although not a cure, Carlsson’s work has been a stepping stone for understanding Parkinson’s disease and has eased the discomforts of such a deadly disease that affects many people in the world.